Confucianism vs Daoism Dbq

Due to Its backgrounds and the reason as to why Confucianism was produced, the religion Idea stresses more on the politics and ethics, Instead of religion and the theoretical world since focusing on such things would simply be a waste of time and energy that could be spent on more productive jobs. Likewise, Confucianism also promotes a seem-murderous way to gain offices. â€Å"Superior individuals†, known as Jinni, can have a say in how to run the state. Additionally, Confucianism also insists on the studying of the ancient Chou Dynasty exist that not only were used for tools in government, it also became widespread as a teaching device.Taoism, on the other hand, was created for a completely different reason. Rather than being created for a completely different mindset, Taoism was created to solely reject the attempts to change events that were deemed to come to pass, such as rebellion or internal strife. It was almost the exact opposite of Confucianism, which could be said to be actively trying to change the events. Not surprisingly, the â€Å"Dad† part of the Taoist to â€Å"The Way' which preaches for harmony ND peace. In fact, the Taoist were so intent of keeping harmony and peace that the even said that attempting to control the world around them would lead to chaos.Therefore, this also meant that the Taoist strictly forbidden schools and also ones ambition to improve. Ironically, despite Taoism and Confucianism were as different as water is to oil, for some way, the intellectuals from the Chinese warring states era were able to mix both into their lives. While other religions, such as Christian, Muslim, and Judaism, cannot mix at all, lest one be declared a heretic, Confucianism came a public doctrine, while Taoism became part of an Intellectuals past time pursuits.Both Taoism and Confucianism were extremely development In Ideology and cause of development, however, both were still Incorporated In the dally lives of Intellectuals of the war ring states era of Chinese history. Confucianism vs. Taoism Db By Jinxing at the same time, Confucianism and Taoism were developed for different reasons Fuzz. Confucianism was developed as a way for government to rule the largely small, city state like kingdoms during the Warring states era.Due to its backgrounds and the reason as to why Confucianism was produced, the religion idea stresses more on the politics and ethics, instead of religion and the theoretical world since focusing on productive Jobs. Likewise, Confucianism also promotes a semi-meritorious way to gain became a public doctrine, while Taoism became part of an intellectuals past time pursuits. Both Taoism and Confucianism were extremely development in ideology and cause of development, however, both were still incorporated in the daily lives of intellectuals of the warring states era of Chinese history.

Best solution for a suburb having frequent cases of violence, theft and burglary

Assume that you are living in suburb which has frequent cases of violence, theft and burglary. What do you think is the best solution in long run and short run? Do you prefer to support CPTED and/or reactive approaches which involves police, court and other activities? Answer: In my view, for a suburb having frequent cases of violence, theft and burglary the best solution in long run or short run can come through CPTED (Crime prevention through environmental design) alone as it focuses on behavioural psychology and relationships between people and the environment.In case a crime has already occurred a reactive investigation involving police, courts and correctional facilities has to necessarily follow but true prevention cannot succeed without involving people. It is an accepted fact that physical deterrent is the best method for prevention of crimes. To this end in case of a suburb of the kind assumed we have to begin by involving people and by consensus limit the points for entry a nd exit; and at the same time block the other points so that no entry or exit is possible save the points agreed to by the residents.Next step would be arranging round the clock vigil of these points of entry and exit to ensure that every visitor is recorded with his identification. Residents can share the costs or they can volunteer by rotation to perform the duties depending on the economic state of the suburb. Residents may also be encouraged and educated to install burglar alarms, particularly for the households which are left locked or where children or the aged or the sick stay alone for long hours.To ensure monitoring and continuity of preventive vigilance by the residents formal and informal meetings of larger and smaller groups will need to be held with brain storming on the security perceptions and maintaining crimelessness of the suburb. Such measures supported by the ideology behind CPTED would go a long way in prevention of crimes in the suburb in question.

Ethical issues in social media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethical issues in social media - Essay Example The affected organization was PayPal. Cyber criminals managed to develop a fake website that aped the original PayPal website. In order to obtain clients’ trust to reveal financial details, the conmen directed people to fake website through link in an email (Shannon, 2013). In the email, they required the users to log on to purported PayPal website and change their passwords only to give fraudsters critical financial details that left them penniless. For some PayPal clients, financial details were used to transfer money to fake recipients (Shannon, 2013). In the PayPal Incident, the client is the loser (Shannon, 2013). For instance, after reporting to the real PayPal about their incident, most clients are dismissed and PayPal calls it as the fault the client who did not identify the email as fraud. The damage was caused by lack of proper customer education on how to prevent online fraud. This could also be connected with user ignorance as there are terms and conditions that one abides to when registering as a member in companies like PayPal (Shannon, 2013). The root cause of the problem was increased cases of phishing where criminals target online banks and companies for their customers’ personal details. Consequently, target companies should work on educating their clients and require them to take all necessary precautions to keep personal security information secret. However, there is a requirement that with evidence of fraudster involvement, organizations are required to refund their clients (Shannon, 2013). In the case of PayPal phishing, the organization dismissed the client for relying on speculation and this made the situation worse as the client did not know who else to turn to (Coombs, 2009). The organization should have understood that the client is the boss and with such an alarm raised, there was need to understand the type of crisis the organization was facing. With a clear definition of the

Encounter point Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words - 1

Encounter point - Essay Example The ownership claims over Jerusalem by Muslims and Jews seems to be the major issue involved in Israel-Palestine dispute. â€Å"Encounter point† is a 2006 award-winning film directed by Ronit Avni and Julia Bacha. It is about people, who have dedicated their lives to trying to resolve the Israeli Palestinian conflict through non-violence means. Non-violence was the ideology through which Mahatma Gandhi succeeded in removing British colonialism from Indian soil. The film â€Å"Encounter point† discusses the possibility of implementing that ideology in settling the issues between Israel and Palestine. This paper analyses various dimensions of the Israel-Palestine conflict as portrayed in the film encounter. In my opinion, the film is not portraying the conflict as between two equal or symmetrical parties. In fact the film describes Israel as the dominant party and the Palestinians as the receiving party. There are many scenes in the film in which wounded Palestinians express their bitterness against the Israelis. At the same time there are no scenes which describe any wounded Israeli blaming the Palestinians at the rehabilitation center. The above fact clearly suggests that the intention of the director of this film was never to portray the clashes between Israel and Palestine as a clash between two equal forces. The film is definitely unbalanced even though some perceive it as favoring the Palestinian side while others as favoring the Israeli side. â€Å"In one scene a Palestinian makes the claim the IDF put poison on their bullets. There is no Israeli to rebut that unlikely claim, nor to mention the fact that suicide bombers add metal bolts and screws to their explosives to maximize civilian casualties† (Gates). In other words, the film says many things about the massacres of Israeli soldiers. At the same time, it says nothing about the suicide bombers from the Palestinian side. The director seems to be taking the side of the

Criminal Justice Organizations- Assignment 4 Essay

Criminal Justice Organizations- Assignment 4 - Essay Example These techniques that are used have a positive effect when it comes to making and implementation of policing. For most policy makers, they know that implementing such mandatory sentencing laws ensure that repeat offenders are punished which leads to a decrease in the level of crime. The mandatory sentencing laws are effective, but this is dependent on a country or a state. When it comes to principles of organization effectiveness leaders have to motivate employees to change if they want change (Stojkovic, Kalinich & Klofas, 2014). Juries in courts in certain countries such a United States are not involved in determining the mandatory penalties that apply when there people who are convicted. The â€Å"get tough† approach and mandatory sentencing laws are largely not effective because they also lead to populated prisons because the minorities are always disproportionally targeted. As noted on page 425, of Stojkovic, Kalinich and Klofas’ book, there is problem of overcrowding in prisons due to these laws. For mandatory sentencing laws to be effective without leading to overpopulation in prisons, all people should be targeted for crimes and not only the minorities. The effect of these laws on the society is evident, not only in minority societies in United States. The public is now of these effects on families of the poor people, even when the accused they have committed non-violent offenses. Sadly, these are laws affect the poor communities in America and not the upper and middle class societies even when this group can easily change these laws. If I had the power and influence to change these laws I would first ensure that the public, whether these are people in poor, rich or middle-class communities are all educated. The public should be aware that the three-strike laws only contribute to increased rates of homicides and other problems. The rates at which the minority males are imprisoned are extremely high. In addition, there so many

The Social Contract Theory Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Social Contract Theory - Research Paper Example Locke theory of social contract challenged some conventional forms of government like churches and monarchs because they give little importance and power to the individuals. He proposes his major views about the social contract theory and political system in his writing Two Treatises on Government. In these writings he explained are detail about his views about the liberty and power of the individuals within the state. He believes that the State of Nature is a perfect state because it gives due liberty to the people for their actions and decision. At the same time, it also gives power to the state regarding dealing with the people and their actions that are not in the overall good of the people (Barker, 1980). The social contract theory is believed to be one of the foundation stone of the American political system and it is widely believed that the main features of the US Bill of rights, criminal justice system are also highly influenced from the social contract theory. As explained by the social contract theory, the US bill of right also attempts to create a balance between freedom, rights, and obligations to direct the actions of the individuals towards the overall good of the society. The theory presented by Locke also clarify that all the people are equal and they have equal freedom and rights in the society without any discrimination and biases. Since the law of nature is the base of all the morality, the people are also supposed to follow the principles of morality within their actions and political decisions.... When they realize that the government is not fulfilling the desired role they also have the power to abolish the government that do not work for their benefits (Leonard, 1988). Locke theory of social contract challenged some conventional forms of government like churches and monarchs because they give little importance and power to the individuals. He proposes his major views about the social contract theory and political system in his writing Two Treatises on Government. In these writings he explained are detail about his views about the liberty and power of the individuals within the state. He believes that the State of Nature is perfect state because it gives due liberty to the people for their actions and decision. At the same time, it also gives power to the state regarding dealing with the people and their actions that are not in overall good of the people (Barker, 1980). The social contract theory is believed to be one of the foundation stone of the American political system a nd it is widely believed that the main features of the US Bill of rights, criminal justice system are also highly influenced from the social contract theory. As explained by the social contract theory, the US bill of right also attempts to create balance between freedom, rights and obligations to direct the actions of the individuals towards the overall good of the society. The theory presented by Locke also clarify that all the people are equal and they have equal freedom and rights in the society without any discrimination and biasness. Since the law of nature is the base of all the morality, the people are also supposed to follow the principles of

Ethical Decision Making in Health Care Term Paper

Ethical Decision Making in Health Care - Term Paper Example An example of one of these ways that can be useful in making decisions that are ethical and appropriate is the use of the Down Model. This model of making ethical decision was established and presented by Down and his colleagues who came up with a step- by- step method of helping professionals in making decisions that are ethical. The Down Model specifically provides professionals with ways to address challenges that affect the solving of professional problems ethically, since it closely resembles or relates to those found in the medical imaging profession. This model is made of at least six steps, which have been adjusted for the appropriate use by the user in responding to a number of hypotheticals. This paper will utilize the Down Model to address or to respond to two particular cases by analyzing them and solving them through the use of the six steps in the Down model. Before looking at the specific cases, it is essential that we look at and familiarize ourselves with the six ste ps of the Down Model. The first step in the model is the step that deals with assessing the problem by considering what ethical contexts are present in which the situation took place. This step requires the user to determine what kind of ethical challenge took place- ethical dilemma of justice, ethical dilemma, locus of authority issue or ethical distress. The second step requires the user to isolate the issues. During this point, the user must be able to differentiate the issues that are essential to the situation from those that are not as essential. The user must also determine what values should be utilized. The user of the model should, at this stage, consider which ethical principles the cases or situations involve or use, they must also consider which rights an organization is violating or compromising, and which area or principle of the profession’s code of conduct or ethics covers the behavior in the situation. The third step of the model involves the user analyzing the data. It is during this stage that the user separates al the pertinent information from the pure conjecture. In this stage, the user should only examine the facts that relate to the problem and eliminate the rest. The fourth stage of the Down model involves the development of an action plan by the user. During this stage, the user makes a decision depending on what options are available for addressing the problem. The last essential stage in the model is the institution of the plan, which involves the user proceeding with the implementation of the solution. The first case that we are going to look at in this case is the first case is Case 1, which deals with the medical imaging professional. The case tells us that the supervisor and the co- workers of the medical imaging professional have been suspecting that the individual has a problem controlling his drinking problem. The person in question comes to work with breath that smells of alcohol, with a compromised gait, and speech that is slightly slurred. The supervisor pulled him aside recently, as a result of these observations, and was able to confirm the signs that he had noticed earlier. The supervisor then warns the professional that according to the substance abuse policy that the observations that he has made are enough to warrant for a drug test, and requests that the imaging professional must undergo a blood test for confirmation. The imaging professional, however, refuses to do as directed. The question here is whether the way the professional acted was a way of insubordination or whether making him go for the test would be a violation of the rights of the

The Employment Relationship, Employment Discrimination and Employment Assignment

The Employment Relationship, Employment Discrimination and Employment Regulation - Assignment Example This essay is to build awareness among the readers regarding complex standoffs and dilemmas involved in employment, ignorance from which may lead to harrowing scenarios. Mostly, an employment relationship is a contractual or legal link between employers and employees. All the reciprocal rights, obligations and disciplinary principles decided between employers and workers originate from the foundation of the employment relationship. The existence of an employment liaison is the condition that determines the way labor and social security law provisions addressed to employees can be applied. The importance of this relationship can be judged by the fact that it is the key reflective point for determining the nature and extent of employers rights and obligations towards their workers. With the growing incidents of inconveniences faced by workers all over the globe owing to the ambiguities related to the privacy and termination issues involved in the nature of this relationship, this issue has bagged more and more important in the workplaces. It goes without saying that the root cause of the mounting misunderstandings between employers and employees is th e disguised nature of the employment relationship. The most basic privacy rights of workers that need to be handled carefully include the right to protect the privacy of social security numbers, personnel records, telephonic conversations and the right to disallow listening to all electronic communication systems. Furthermore, many federal and statutory laws emphasize on protecting the privacy of employees’ medical records and information and background screening. Background screening actually identifies different background checks and records that are required by some employers as a part of workers recruiting process. An employer is not allowed to probe endlessly into the worker’s private issues in life. Different state laws and employment legislatures restrict the type of background information.

Diagnosis and data gathering based on a case study Peppercorn Dining

Diagnosis and data gathering based on a Peppercorn Dining - Case Study Example The study used both qualitative and quantitative approaches. This was appropriate variable in collecting and summarizing data that was used in analyzing about to analyze the organizational development and change of Peppercorn Dining and some mitigation measures necessary. As a result, the qualitative and quantitative research methods ensured reliability and credibility of the results. The design is also suitable because it gives an in-depth description of the phenomena in their existing setting. This fits well with the hotel staff who participated in the study while in their respective duties. Descriptive survey was also preferred because it is economical in collecting data from over a large sample with high data turn over. Data collection process Mark Tap consultants were assigned the duty of collecting the data in order to improve on how Peppercorn Dinning operates concerning their development and change. In their quest to obtain the needed data, the consultants will issue question naires to staff members and managers. Sample Selection The selection will be based on randomization principle, which is a procedure of giving every subject in a population an equal chance of appearing in the selection. Stratified random sampling will be used to select the sample population. After which, simple random sampling will be used to get the required the desired sample. Data analysis Data Analysis procedure The data collected was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Open coding was used to initially name and categorize the data, and selective coding was used to develop a more general framework. The study used frequency count, mean, standard deviation, minimum and maximum values of variables. The hypotheses formulated for the study tested using logistic regression. Quantitative data analysis was done to generate frequencies percentages and means. The resulting quantitative data will then be interpreted using simple statistical method. The questionnaires were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 21. The data collected through questionnaire was classified on the basis of common attributes then tallied to obtain statistical frequencies, tabulated and finally analyzed using descriptive statistics. This helped to collapse large volume of quantitative data in numerical form for ease of statistical interpretation. Besides this, the ANOVA test was applied to find the significance difference among the opinions of different categories of the respondents. The qualitative data obtained through open-ended questions and interview protocols was analyzed by placing the responses into identical categories as described in NVivo software used for analyzing qualitative research data. Besides frequencies, the opinions of the respondents will be calculated into percentage. Interviews and observation Peppercorn Dinning has not embraced professionalism, in that anyone is assign to do a given chore on the basis of who come s first. It is disappointing to note that those who merit to be in finance, marketing and technological sections are thrown away to manual work such as cooking and cleaning. This was triggered by the fact that the students were allowed to seek for employment in Peppercorn Dinning with their academic qualifications notwithstanding. The academic qualification of the organization had not attained the proper skills the hire

How does the culture of a selectrace affect the value of sacramentals Essay - 1

How does the culture of a selectrace affect the value of sacramentals to the Church and individual spirituality - Essay Example f both culture and religion in the human society affect the human individuals in the communities around the globe and how each other intend to affect the systems of understanding and life-guidance that is provided by both aspects of directive human living. Through this discussion, it is expected that a presented indication as to how human living and human perception toward modern Catechism and religious consideration have been changed through the years of human advancement due to the implicative elements that culture itself suggests to the human communities worldwide. This part of the paper shall show a definitive pathway that would lead to the readers understanding of what religion and culture is and what roles are they playing g in the lives of human individuals living in certain communities around the globe. In this section of the reading, a defining factor on the differentiated approach of cultural preferences shall be presented in connection with the changes that it proposes on the recognition of the importance of Catechism in the society. This section shall tackle about the developments happening in the human society then and at present and how these developments affect the acceptance of people towards the guidelines and rules that are presented to them by religion through catechism. For this section of the reading, the researcher shall present the modern approaches to catholic catechism that reflects the effect of social culture towards the establishment of rules and ways of living suggested by modern religion. Through the basic discussions, this section shall summarize all the necessary points that are importantly needed for the proving of the major options of realizing how culture and religion go hand in hand or on the other hand, stand against each other, in presenting modern human lifestyle guidelines. Religion and culture are two primary foundations of the present systems of human society. Basically though, these two primary entities of the human

Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Philosophy Essay 1. How do philosophical questions differ from scientific or factual questions? Philosophy specializes in questions that cannot be answered scientifically, mainly because there are not elements of the question that can be measured or tested empirically. Philosophy questions things and the answers are sought to be more opinionated and based on certain points of view. Philosophy focuses on questions similar to â€Å"how does this work. † A philosophical question that is beneficial is anything that has to do with life, death, or the universe. Philosophical questions do not possess definite answers, and they do not require measurements. For instance, a question could read, â€Å"What makes a great dad? † One person may answer the question saying, qualities that make a great dad would include spending one on one time with the child, always attending school functions and events, and always making time for the children. While this answer could be true for that individual another individual could answer the question saying, a great dad is one who provides all necessities for the family through financial stability, and actions that prove he cares. Both of these answers can possess the capability of being correct because the question is based on personal opinions and there is no definite way to define this. The science approach attempts to answer all the questions that it can empirically, but this is sometimes not possible. The reason some of the times it is not possible is because the questions increase over time and with the advances in technology. As technology expands the more questions that it rises to science and the more questions that are left without a scientific answer. The specific feature of science is to measure and weigh everything. Factual is evidence in themselves and are therefore established. Philosophy and science have much in common. Many of the greatest philosophers were also scientists, or possessed the quality to be categorized as one in his or her time period. Philosophers approach questions similarly to the way scientists do with his or her critical thinking. Scientists formulate theories and then test them against what they can observe or reason. Scientific questions implies that an individual is inquiring about the world around him or her and expecting precise answers. A scientific question possesses an independent variable and a dependent variable in it. A factual question is a question about a fact, â€Å"where did this event happen? † is factual because it is asking for facts. But a scientific or factual question are ones that possess the ability to be answered through verification which will produce some types of definite answers that are measurable and concrete proof. An example of this type of question would include, â€Å"how tall is sally? † The answer that an individual comes up with will be accurate because he or she takes the scientific measurements to answer the question to eliminate speculations. However, speculations could occur while answering how tall Sally is because one could say well is that Sally’s accurate height, because when an individual first awakens they are taller than they are in the evening. When an individual first awaken his or her body has had time to relax and stretch out for the evening sleep, and if measurements were taken during the day or at night the body has not maintained the ability to stretch out causing the individual to be shorter. Personally the way around this would be to measure Sally three times once in the morning, the middle of the afternoon, and finally in the evening. 2. How did the approaches to philosophical inquiry progress from the Pre-Socratics to Socrates, Plato, and finally to Aristotle? How do these changing approaches reflect cultural influences that affected the philosophers of ancient Greece? The philosophical inquiry process during the pre-Socrates era was based mainly on metaphysics which asks what the nature of being is. The Socrates era began to question viewpoints that began asking and answering questions to stimulate an individuals’ critical thinking and in turn illuminating ideas, this began to form a debate and inquiry between individuals’ opposing this view. The dialectical method is a process that the Socrates began and involves oppositional discussions. This method involves oppositional discussions that defend one point of view against another point of view. One individual may lead others to contract his or her point of view in turn strengthening the inquirer’s view point. Plato began to challenge the paradox dialectical method of education upon examining it, â€Å"if one knows nothing, then how will one come to recognize knowledge when he or she encounters it? † The Socrates of Plato came to a different conclusion. The Socrates began to use a slave boy and demonstrate through geometry lessons that every individual acquires even the smallest amount of knowledge, and the knowledge serves as a window into the individual’s eternal and omniscient soul. By communicating with the slave the teacher could contest the student’s false opinions until he came to a true opinion that withstood severities of critical examination. Although the individual’s soul is the warehouse of the knowledge each individual must learn how to access the knowledge and recall it. Plato began to dwindle from the Sophists by Plato distanced himself further from Sophists by separating knowledge from opinions. The scientific method came around after the introduction from Aristotle. The scientific method is the development and explanation of rules for scientific investigation and reasoning that is not clear-cut. The scientific method is a hot topic for many severe and frequent debates throughout the science’s history. Many of the natural philosophers and scientists argue for the primary of a single approach that will establish scientific knowledge. Many debates that surround the scientific method is centered on rationalism. Empiricism is the main component of scientific tradition according to Aristotle. Aristotle felt that individual can gain the knowledge of universal truth through particular things such as induction. In some measures Aristotle brings together abstract thought with observations. Aristotelian science is not empirical in form, and many individuals commonly mistake this implication. Aristotle denies that individuals develop knowledge through induction and possesses the ability to be considered scientific knowledge. The main preliminary to scientific business enquiry is induction, this provides the preliminary grounds for scientific demonstrations. The main job of philosophers was to examine and discover the truths causes and to demonstrate universal truths. Even though induction was satisfactory for discovering universals by simplification, it lacked the ability to successfully identify the causes. Aristotle sought after identifying the causes and began using deductive reasoning in the form of syllogisms. Using the syllogisms, scientists possessed the capability of inferring new universal truths from ones that have previously been established by other philosophers. Personally upon learning about these different philosophers. I think the different inquiry processes empowered each philosopher to think out of the realm of normality and not except the norm which enabled Greece and even other cultures to answer questions and in turn gain more knowledge. 3. How are philosophical opinions justified? Epistemology contains the theory of justification and struggles to nderstand justifications of proposals and beliefs. Philosophical opinions are justified because of epistemology, which is associated to philosophies including justification, beliefs, and truths. Epistemology deals with the means of the production of knowledge. According to Plato, justification is the final component of knowledge and without it individuals only have a true opinion. Belief is a state of mind on which an individual can often fickle and liable to change. Justification is the factual rationalization of true opinions, reality is the thing that grounds it (Baker, 2013). Justification based theories of knowledge are categorized into two subsections, irrationalism and panrationalism. Irrationalism is something that draws to irrational principles and authorities, including an individual’s feelings. Panrationalism is rational criteria and principles including reasoning and observation. I believe that philosophical opinions are justified in various ways. Philosophical opinions not necessarily justified but are guided by personal experiences and religious beliefs. When beliefs are justified there is always a justifier or something that justifies the belief. Different things can be justifiers for example the following three items are suggested, the first is solely beliefs, beliefs that are together with other cognizant mental states, and finally beliefs, cognizant mental states, and other realities about individuals and his or her surrounding and the environment, which individuals may or may not possess the access to. As with every philosophical ideas there is criticism following the theory of justification. Held by critical rationalists W. W.  Bartley, David Miller, and Karl Popper, non-justificational criticism is the major opposition that is against this theory. Criticism to the justificationism is trying to prove that the claims lack the ability to be reduced to the influence or criteria that it influences appeals to, it states that justification is a primary claim and the claim itself is secondary. Nonjustificational criticism strives to attack the claims themselves. The first being guided by personal experience is because individuals tend to associate his or her philosophy on the basis of experiences they have encountered. An example that one can contribute to this is old policies that an individual has seen work effectively and as a result an opinion or philosophy is developed believing that it is the only way or best way because it worked for the individual. Another way philosophical opinions are justified is through religious orientation and is believed to be the most significant majority of the time. From birth individuals are drilled about right and wrong according to his or her religious views. Religious orientation affects an individual in all philosophical areas. Some include what to eat, creation and what is acceptable or not and because it is based on faith instead of facts, religion really shapes and individuals life because it effects ones choices in life. I think that justifying an individual’s ethical and moral beliefs is unnecessary, I think that individuals are entitled to believe and have certain opinions on what they choose. If these individuals try to justify his or her moral beliefs then they are clarifying an issue and answering a question.

British Colonization Essay Example for Free

British Colonization Essay Europe expansion to India began in 18th century had great changes in various field such as economics politic, society, culture and so on. Especially, after British imperialism which became a ruler of India had great effect on India. As a result, there are many essential changes in language and customs in India and even thought they gained independence from British rule 200 years ago, the influence on the British colonial era has still remained in many ways. One of the most factors that the British lunched the colonization of India was the establishment of the East India Company. Throughout the 16th century to early 17th century, the demand for spices in Europe had continued to increase. At early 1600s, the Portuguese were the only European country which imported spices from the East. They dominated the spice trade with Asia because Vasco da Gama was the first European to arrive in India. Having arrived in Calicut he obtained from Saamoothiri Rajah permission to trade in the city. However the Dutch ousted the Portuguese from East and became the exclusive supplier of spices to Europe. British traders frequently engaged in hostilities with their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian Ocean The East India Company had the unusual distinction of ruling an entire country. In 1600, the East India Company was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I for trade with Asia. They decided to head on to India for trade because at this time Portugal that had powerful trade with East Asia was losing control of East Asian Spice trade transformed by the European Age of Discovery. However, the East India Company had to confront and deal with the Dutch to increase the trade. At that point, The Dutch East India Company was a peak in 1669. They employed around 10000 soldiers, 40 warships and 150 merchant ships. and had a good position trading with Asia by reason of good ship captains, merchants, banker and financiers. Therefore, it was important for England to be done about the Dutch to increase trade. According to The East India Company Lobby, Charles ? ’ sought favorable terms for the East India Company in European nation and established the Council of Trade of 1660 to deal with their grievances. Parliament also helped the merchants. In 1663 it sanctioned exports of bullion and foreign currency for the first time. It tried to restrict Dutch commercial superiority in the fishing, spice, and wool trades. In short, the effort of the British government to help the Company against the Dutch provided benefits for many English traders. So they began to send ships to the Spice trade with India. In addition, the East India Company was comparatively easy to expand in India because of the decline of Mughal power. In that time, the Mughal Empire was an lslamic imperial power in Indian subcontinent which began in 1526. They were descendants of the Timurids and controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent. In 1612, The British got a major victory over the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally. And the East India Company decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial foothold in mainland in India and requested the Crown to launch a diplomatic. In 1627, the Mughal Emperor Jahangir granted the India Company permission to build a fortified factory at the principal Mughal port of Surat. However, the factory at Bombay became the headquarters of the Company. Eventually the region was divided into the three presidencies of Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay. In consequence, they were still responsible to the Court of Directors in London and the East India Company garnered huge profits generated by a system of triangular trade that saw English gold and silver coins traded for Indian goods. It is not much say that British rule in India was originated from having begun in 1757. On June 23rd of that year, at the Battle of Plassey, a small village and mango grove between Calcutta and Murshidabad, the forces of the East India Company under Robert Clive defeated the army of Siraj-ud-daulah, the Nawab of Bengal. The battle lasted no more than a few hours, and indeed the outcome of the battle had been decided long before the soldiers came to the battlefield. The battle of plassey is said to be one of the pivotal battles leading to the formation of the British in South Asia. The British gained the enormous wealth from the Bengal treasury, and access to a massive source of foodgrains and taxes. It also allowed them to significantly strengthen its military might, and opened the way for British colonial rule, mass economic exploitation and cultural domination in nearly all of South Asia. In 1757, by reason of the victory at Plassey, where a military force led by Robert Clive defeated the forces of the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-daulah, the East India Company had varied to be transformed from an association of traders to rulers exercising political sovereignty over a largely unknown land and people. So the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a series of administrative and economic reforms and by doing so clearly found its sovereignty and ultimate control over the Company. During this time, it ame into conflict with the Marathas, the British and the Nizam of Golconda which culminated in the four Anglo-Mysore wars. In 1779, Haider Ali had token parts of modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the south, enlarging the Kingdom’s area to about 205. 000km. In 1779, Haider Ali invaded Karnataka with 80. 000 army, descending through the passes of the Ghats amid burning villages, before laying siege to British forts in northern Arcot starting the Second Anglo-Mysore War. That was to say that they did damage to the British but he died after 2 years his son Tipu Sultan succeed to the throne. Haider Ali’s successor, Tipu Sultan, kept to fight the war so the following year, he took many British army and officers dispatched from Bombay. As a result, the treaty of Mangalore was signed in 1784 bringing hostilities with the British to a temporary and uneasy halt and restored the other’s lands to the status quo ante bellum. The East India Company could gain control of all India by the aggressive policies of Lord Wellesley and the Marquis of Hastings without the Punjab, Sindh and Nepal. Also Indian Princes had become barons of the East India Company. However there were finances to the breaking point in the Company comparing with the expense of wars leading to the total control of India. The Company was extorted to petition Parliament of assistance. Certain Indian social or religious practices that the British found to be abhorrent were outlawed, such as aati in 1829, and an ethic of improvement was said to dictate British social policies. In the 1840s and 1850s, under the governal-generalship of Dalhousie and then Canning, more territories were absorbed into British India, either on the grounds that the native rulers were corrupt. , inept, and notoriously indifferent about the welfare of their subjects, or that since the native ruler had failed to produce a biological male heir to the throne, the territory was bound to â€Å"lapse† into British India upon the death of the ruler. The peace the company made to India helped undermine Indian society. In 1813, English Protestant missionaries were permitted by the company to come to India, establishing missions and schools among the Indian population. Increasingly British authority started to reform in India. For instance, William Bentinck who was governor general from 1833 to 1835 outlawed the practice of sati, by which a Hindu widow was burned on her dead husband’s funeral pyre. In the second of the 19th century, both the direct administration of India by the British crow and the technological change ushered in by the industrial revolution, had the effect of intertwining the economies of India and the Britain. Basically many of the important change in transport and communications had already begun before the Mutiny. The beginning of dispute between the company administration and the Indian governor-general came under the marquess of Dalhousie, who served from 1848 to 1856. He aggressively tried to increase lands under the company’s control by the doctrine of lapse that allowed the company to annex Indian principalities. So many points of friction culminated in a violent outbreak. According to the Revolt in Delhi and Its Afterlife written by Nayanjot Lahiri, in 1857, a sepoy mutiny broke out in Meerut, which was the headquarters of a division of the Bengal army. In less than a day, by the early hours of the morning of 11 May, the Meerut mutineers crossing the bridge of boats on the Yamuna river, reached Delhi. The garrison there, almost immediately, revolted, many British residents were massacred and Bahadur Shah ? , the Mughal king who resided in Helhi, accepted the nominal leadership of the rebellion. That was the start in the Sepoy Mutiny. The source of the Sepoy Mutiny, Sepoy Rebellion, was that The East India Company began recruiting native citizens as trios in 1667, in order to maintain control during their trading operations. In 1748, the British followed suit and began recruiting and training Indians to fight with their weaponry and methods. The Indian units were called â€Å"native sepoys† and became the largest part of the forces in India. After British had gained two-thirds of India’s land imperialism had begun to affect every part of Indian life, there was an incredible amount of tension that only needed a small spark to set off a huge revolt. The spark that came to begin the period of revolts was the introduction of new, more accurate breech-loading Enfield rifle. The first event was the bloody uprising at the garrison in Meerut, in which the mutineers murdered every European they found. Then they marched to Delhi and â€Å"placed themselves under the leadership of the impotent and bewildered Mogul Emperor Bahadur Shah†. The idea of rebellion spread through the Ganges valley, the Rajputna, Central India, and parts of Bengal. Then, Cawnpore had surrendered to Nana Sahib, and Lucknow, the only British-held outpost in Oudh, was besieged† and it was discovered that 200 European men, women, and children murderd a month earlier in the mutiny and siege at Cawnpore. Vengeance was swift and harsh: suspected mutineers were tied to cannons and executed. In six month, the mutiny had been broken, and, within the next year, British power was restored. In 1858, the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Rebellion, broke out. This was the huge threat posed to the British during the British India. At that time, they abolished the East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under the British. Large swathes of territory in the Gangetic plains had fallen to the rebel. Atrocities were conducted on both sides. British troops, which were units controlled by the East India Company and were paid for by their profis, recaptured Delhi in 1857 and the Emperor Mughals, Bahadur Shah, was put on trial for sedition and convicted. Finally the Rebellion had been crushed in 1858. The East India Company was disbanded by John Stuart Mill, the Commissioner of Correspondence at India House and the unacknowledged formulator of British policy with respect to the native states, furnished and elaborate but ultimately unsuccessful plea on behalf of the Company. Thus, India became a Crown colony of the British which governed directly by Paliament. Queen Victoria announced that she and her officers would work for the welfare of their Indian subjects. However there were some debates among Indians surrounding the policies like female education, widow remarriage, the age for marriage, the state of women, English education, the expansion of the government and more member of Indian joined government service. On the strength of that, there was a considerable increase in both English and Indian journalism and the Indian National Congress was founded in order that Indians who was educated well could gain a voice in the governance in India. But, they did not allow nationalist sentiments within the organization like the Congress. In 905, the British partitioned Bengal because it was the large size of the presidency and so provoked the first major resistance to British rule and administrative policies. During that time, Indians started many strategies of non violent resistance, boycott, strike and cooperation. Finally the British agreed to revoke the partition of Bengal. The partition attempted partly to divide with the Muslim area from Bengal which was Hindu and The capital in India was changed with Calcutta to Delhi. The railway was built by the British India government for military reasons and with the hope that it would stimulate industry. It was overbuilt and much too elaborate and expensive for the small amount of freight traffic it carried, The India railways system provided India with social savings of 9 percent of India’s national income. The Rowlatt Act that the British enacted to the Indian help in WWI allowed that the government could imprison anyone without a trial and a conviction. and thousands of people protested peacefully against the law and British troops coped with the protest by armored vehicle. As a result, more than thousands people, women and children, were massacred. The event also caused the non-cooperation movement against the British by Mathtma Ganhi in 1920 to 1942. Negotiations for some agreement with independence took place in 1930 in London. And finally, the British would grant India its independence. India got more deeply to effort the British during WWII. Also troops, the princely states donated substantial amounts of cash. By the end of the war, India had an incredible 2. 5 million man volunteer army. Approximately 8700 Indian soldier were killed in the war. As a result, the Indian independence movement was very strong by that time and the British rule was widely resented. 0000 Indian were recruited by the Germans and Japanese to fight against the Allies in exchange of their freedom. Indian fought in Burma, North Africa, Italy and so on. In 1946, there was a violent fighting broken out between Hindus and Muslims in Calcutta. And the trouble spread across India. The trouble flared again as independence approached and they agreed to divide India along sectatian lines. While Muslim areas in the north became the Pakistan, Hindu and Sikh stayed in India and by unprecedented horrors of partition, 500000 was killed and many women were abducted or raped. Finally it is true that the British made positive contributions to Indian life. During the British India, India inherited from the British their university, agriculture system and Industry but remains religious conflict. Social institutions like clubs and gymkhanas were a important factor of British. The Indian language was also developed well. The influential school of painting emerged in 19th century and can scarcely be understood without a reference to the creation of a modern market. In sports, cricket is the most famous in India. However, they also brought serious negative consequence with colonialism.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Building

Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Building Green building was developed in the 1970s, during the energy crisis, when people finally realised that they needed to save energy and alleviate environmental problems. The idea originated on the United States, as they were one of the largest contributors of pollution in the world. Due to the fact that Buildings account for a large amount of land, energy and water consumption, and also contribute hugely to air pollution, green building aims to reduce the environmental impact buildings have on the environment. Practices and technologies used in green building are constantly improving. Many are different from region to region, however there are fundamental principles that must be followed. Green building is an outcome of a design philosophy, which focuses on increasing the efficiency of 4 main resources: Energy Water Materials Health Along with increasing efficiency, green buildings also aim to reduce the impact buildings have on human health and the environment during the buildings lifecycle. This is achieved by improved design, construction, operation, maintenance, and removal of waste materials. It is generally agreed that green buildings are structures that are sited, designed, built, renovated and operated to energy-efficient guidelines, and that they will have a positive environmental, economic and social impact over their life cycle. Green specifications provide a good set of guidelines for the building industry, but these are still in the process of being formalised into UK regulation and many are open to interpretation.† (Source: www.sustainablebuild.co.uk) Green building requires a holistic approach that looks at each component of a building and how it relates in context with the whole building. This allows us to look at the impact the building will have on the wider environment and community around it. Green Building is a difficult approach, which needs builders, architects and engineers to think creatively, and increase the level of integration throughout the project. There are several resources and published guides that can help builders with the green building process, such as BREEAM (Building and Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method), the Code for Sustainable Homes, and EcoHomes. In Conclusion: â€Å"Green Building is not simply about protecting the biosphere and natural resources from over-exploitation or over-consumption, nor is it simply about saving energy to reduce our heating bills. It considers the impact of buildings and materials on occupants and the impact of our lives on the future environment.† (Source Tom Woolley, Sam Kimmins, Paul Harrison and Rob Harrison 1997. Green Building Handbook. Oxford: Spon Press . 5.) Green Building Essentials There are four main criteria that need to be considered in green building. They are: Materials. Energy. Water. Health. Materials The materials used in Green Building projects need to be: From a natural, renewable source that has been managed and harvested in a sustainable way. Obtained locally in order to reduce the embedded energy costs of transportation. Sourced from reclaimed materials at nearby sites. Materials are graded using green specifications which look at their life cycle and analyse them in terms of their embodied energy, durability, recycled content, waste minimisation, and their ability to be reused or recycled. Some examples of building materials that are considered green include: Renewable plant materials such as straw. Timber from sustainably managed forests. Recycled stone Recycled metal. Products that are non-toxic, reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable eg. linoleum, sheep wool, compressed earth blocks, rammed earth, clay, flax linen, cork, sand stone, and concrete. Building materials should be sourced and manufactured locally to the building site where possible in order to minimise the energy used through transportation. It is also desireable for building elements to be manufactured off-site, then delivered when needed. The benefits of this include minimising waste and maximising recycling as manufacturing is in a set location. Energy Energy consumption is a major issue, which green building principles aim to address. Nearly all UK houses are extremely inefficient when it comes to heating and lighting consumption. One method of reducing heating and ventilation costs for a building is to incorporate Passive Solar Design. This is when the suns energy is used for heating and cooling various living spaces. These passive systems are extremely simple in design, having very few moving parts and usually require no mechanical systems therefore they have a minimal maintenance issue. Common features of passive solar heating include windows that can be opened and closed. Passive solar design incorporates the use of thermal mass also. This is when materials such as masonry, concrete and water actually store heat for a period of time this can prevent rapid fluctuations in temperature. High levels of insulation and energy-efficient windows can help to conserve a lot of energy from escaping through the buildings envelope. In regards to lighting a building, natural daylight design reduces the need for electricity in a building while improving the occupants health and productivity. Green buildings also incorporate energy-efficient lighting, low energy appliances, and renewable energy technologies such as wind turbines and solar panels. Water Reducing water consumption in a ‘Green’ House is an important aspect in many of the green building rating systems. It is therefore essential that water can be recycled around the house. This can be achieved by installing greywater and rainwater harvesting systems which will re-use water for tasks like watering plants or toilet flushing. Incorporating water-efficient appliances in kitchens and bathrooms, such as low flow showerheads, self-closing or spray taps, low-flush toilets, or waterless composting toilets, will all aid in reducing the amount of water required for the day to day running of the house. Health This aspect of Green Building refers to the health of the buildings occupants. Using non-toxic materials in construction will help to improve indoor air quality, which can reduce the rate of respiratory illnesses such as asthma. The materials and products used in a green design need to be emission-free and have very little or no VOC (Volatile organic compound) content. They also need to be moisture resistant in order to prevent moulds, spores from growing inside the house. Indoor air quality can be improved through ventilation systems and using materials in the construction of the house that control humidity and allow a building to breathe. A major factor which isnt included in the main four topics I have discussed above is what happens after the construction of the building has been completed. It wont matter how sustainable the design and construction stage of the project was if the building is not maintained responsibly. This needs to be considered at the planning stage of construction and the occupant must be briefed on the green building concept. They should also be informed that in order to keep the ‘green’ status the building will have, careful and considerate maintenance methods will need to be employed, with the possibility of the need to upgrade aspects of the building to keep up to date with changing regulations and standards. It is also important that the occupier continues green practices such as recycling throughout the life-cycle of the building. A green building should provide cost savings to both the builder and occupant. It should also benefit the community through the use of local labour. Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Building I am going to first outline some of the disadvantages of green building, as most people tend to focus only on the positive aspects. Considerations such as cost, funding, material availability and location restrictions must be taken into account when planning a green build project. One of the most common disadvantages of Green Building is the additional cost incurred. This is due to the increase in the quality of construction methods and materials used. Although energy savings can balance the extra costs out, it is still seen as a disadvantage the fact that extra money needs to be spent at the construction stage. Eco-friendly building materials are often difficult to find in many areas of the UK, which can lead to prices being much higher than standard building materials. While projects close to larger cities may have no difficulty finding green building materials, suppliers may be scarce in other areas. Many materials require special ordering, which could increase costs. Some other materials may only be available through Internet orders, which will increase the cost due to shipping and handling. The green building market is becoming much more competitive due to the increase in demand for this type of construction, and Green Building costs are predicted to decrease in the near future. Apart from the initial cost of green building, finding a mortgage company or bank that offers loans for a building that is not built in the traditional way may be difficult. The time taken to complete a green building can also be viewed as a disadvantage. Green building projects encourage the use of recycled materials and trying to source these can add to the time to complete a certain stage of the build that the contractor and client haven’t allowed for in the project. One overlooked disadvantage is the fact that in recent years houses have become more airtight, which has added to the problem of indoor air quality. Houses have become so sealed that there is now an increase in indoor pollution. An example of how this can occur is if a builder decides to use some recycled material but is unaware of any chemicals that may be contained in it. The chemicals may give off volatile organic compounds, which have in fact been found toxic to humans. Most green building guides have a section on Indoor Air Quality, ventilation, filtration systems, and suggestions for low or no VOC products in the building process to address this issue. The benefits of green building are what most people want to know nowadays, and below are some of these advantages. They have been categorised into three main areas, Environmental, Economic and Social Benefits. Environmental Benefits: Reduction of Emissions: Using green building techniques such as solar power and daylighting increase the energy efficiency of the building, and also cut down harmful emissions released by fossil fuels. This can help reduce air quality issues such as smog and acid rain. Conservation of Water: Significant water savings can be created by introducing methods such as rainwater and greywater harvesting. These methods use and recycle various water sources, which can then be used for irrigation in gardening and for flushing toilets. Stormwater management can also be helpful to the environment by reducing localised flooding, which can carry pollution into water sources, and erosion. Rainwater harvesting and using building materials that are permeable for driveways can help reduce this risk. Waste Reduction: Green building promotes increased efficiency both during and after the construction phase. Recycling and reusing waste materials will lead to a decrease in the amount of waste that needs to be dumped in landfills. Economic Benefits: As I mentioned above, some people believe green building to be too expensive. Previous studies have shown that costs are not substantially higher than traditional developments. As long as the designer and client have decided to go down the route of green building, the high construction costs can usually be avoided. Although the costs may be higher at the beginning of a projects life cycle, they can be recouped throughout the life of the building. Due to the increased efficiency from green design and new technology, operation costs from heating, electricity and water can all be reduced dramatically, resulting in a low payback time on the money invested at the beginning of the project. Green buildings can also be sold or rented quicker, and at a premium rate because of the low maintenance and utility bills. This will prove to be a unique selling point if the cost of fuel continues to rise. Social Benefits: Another very impressive advantage of a green building is its ability to improve the occupier’s health. Conditions such as respiratory problems, skin rashes, nausea and allergies, which can result from insufficient air circulation, poor lighting, mould, toxic adhesives and paints, can be significantly reduced in a green built house. This is because green building emphasises the need for proper ventilation and the reduction in use of toxic material, which will create a healthier living environment. Another key element of green building is the need to preserve the natural environment. This can provide a variety of recreation and exercise opportunities. Green buildings also seek to facilitate alternatives to driving, such as bicycling by awarding points for providing bike docks (In the Code for Sustainable Homes), which eases local traffic while increasing personal health and fitness. Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Green Building Below are the disadvantages and advantages summarised in point form. Disadvantages: Initial cost. Funding for projects from banks hard to get. Location Factor. Availability of Materials. Timescale. Implications on air quality due to the use of some recycled materials. Advantages: Environmental Benefits. Reduction of Emissions. Conservation of Water. Reduced localised flooding. Waste reduction. Economic benefits. Low utility bills. Increase in likelihood for the property to be sold or let. Social Benefits. Improvement to the occupant’s health. Preservation of the natural environment. Increased recreation and exercise opportunities. As you can see there are significantly more Advantages than Disadvantages of Green Building. Green Building Rating Systems In this section of my report I am going to give a brief introduction to the main Green Building rating systems used in the UK. These systems review a building or construction project, and score it on different sections. Points are usually awarded for issues addressed and an accreditation is awarded depending on the amount of points scored when the project is completed. Although I have focused on Green building in houses, I will look at some systems that are used for commercial building and civil engineering works. Below are some of the systems I will be discussing: BREEAM BREEAM is an abbreviation for the ‘BRE Environmental Assessment Method’. BREEAM is the leading and most widely used environmental assessment method for buildings. It sets the standard for best practice in sustainable design and has become the primary measure used to describe a buildings environmental performance.† (Cited from the BREEAM website – www.breeam.org) BREEAM was established by the BRE in the UK in 1990 as and aid to help measure the sustainability of new buildings. BREEAM has grown since then with reular updates according to changes in building regulations and government legislation. The BREEAM guidelines cover many different types of building, including Industrial, Residential, Education, Healthcare and Retail. The BREEAM guidelines were last updated in 2008. In this upgrade, a new two stage assesment process was introduced. This means that the building will be assesed at the design stage and also after the completion of construction. Mandatory scoring credits were introduced and a new rating level of BREEAM Outstanding was created. The BREEAM standard is not only being used in the UK, it is fast turning into a global accreditation. The BRE have set up a new division called BREEAM International. This division has already created versions of BREEAM for Europe and the Gulf, adapting them in accordance to local regulations. The information below is also from the BREEAM website. This information outlines the reasons why BREEAM should be used: BREEAM provides clients, developers, designers and others with: * Market recognition for low environmental impact buildings. * Assurance that best environmental practice is incorporated into a building. * Inspiration to find innovative solutions that minimise the environmental impact. * A benchmark that is higher than regulation. * A tool to help reduce running costs, improve working and living environments. * A standard that demonstrates progress towards corporate and organisational environmental objectives.† (Cited from www.breeam.org) BREEAM addresses wide-ranging environmental and sustainability issues and enables developers and designers to prove the environmental credentials of their buildings to planners and clients. * BREEAM uses a straightforward scoring system that is transparent, easy to understand and supported by evidence-based research * BREEAM has a positive influence on the design, construction and management of buildings * BREEAM sets and maintains a robust technical standard with rigorous quality assurance and certification† (Information sourced from the BREEAM website – www.breeam.org) CEEQUAL CEEQUAL stands for, The Civil Engineering Environmental Awards Scheme. It is a scheme for improving the sustainability of civil engineering and public sector projects, in the UK. The aim of CEEQUAL is to encourage civil engineering companies to achieve improved environmental and social performance in the specification, design and construction areas of their projects. Launched in September 2003, CEEQUAL was mainly developed by the ICE (Institute of Civil Engineers) and various government departments and agencies also gave their support to the idea and helped to finance the initiative. Since 2003, CEEQUAL has grown to be the main scheme for assesing the sustainability of civil engineering works. In 2008 CEEQUAL was included in the Government report â€Å"Strategy for Sustainable Construction† as a scheme to be used that can comply with the governments design agenda for civil engineering works. Just like the BREEAM assessment, CEEQUAL uses a credits or points to score various aspects of a civil engineering project, including environmental aspects such as, water, energy and land usage, as well as other categories such as nuisance to neighbours, waste minimisation and management, archaeology, community amenity and ecology. A project that has achieved an award from CEEQUAL will show the public that the designers, contractors and clients, have completed a project that is above the minimum environmental standards, which will portray that they care about sustainability in the construction industry. Benefits of CEEQUAL: * Provides a benchmark standard for environmental performance; * Demonstrates the commitment of the civil engineering industry to environmental quality; and celebrates the achievement of high environmental standards in civil engineering projects A CEEQUAL Award for a civil engineering project identifies an organisation that: * Measures and compares standards of performance; * Respects people and the society in which it operates; * Undertakes its work in an ethical and sustainable manner; * Acts in a socially and environmentally responsible way; * Protects and enhances the environment; and * Is concerned about the major impacts of construction on the environment and the earth’s resources. Source http://www.cpdni.gov.uk/index/guidance-for-suppliers/ceequal.htm There are several different CEEQUAL Award levels that a project can achieve, depending on the percentage number of points scored against the scoped-out question set. These are: * more than 25% Pass * more than 40% Good * more than 60% Very Good * more than 75% Excellent Five types of award can be applied: * Whole Project Award, which is normally applied for jointly by or on behalf of the client, designer and principal contractor(s) * Client Design Award * Design Only Award, applied for by the principal designer(s) only * Construction Only Award, applied for by the principal contractor(s) only * Design Build Award, applied for the designer(s) and constructor(s) of a project. Irish CEEQUAL Certified Projects Below are some examples of the Civil Engineering projects that have achieved CEEQUAL Awards in Ireland in the last few years: 2008 – 2009 Awards: * Custom House Square, Belfast Award: Excellent  § Derry City Centre Public Realm Award: Excellent  § Armagh Environmental Improvement Scheme Award: Very Good  § Downshire to Whitehead Sea Defences Boneybefore to Edenhalt (section 3) Award: Good  § Balloo Waste Transfer Station and Recycling Centre, Bangor Award: Very Good  § Moneymore Flood Protection Scheme Award: Excellent  § N229 Newtownards Road Environmental Improvements Award: Excellent  § Belfast City Centre Streets Ahead Award: Excellent  § Knockmore Lurgan Track Upgrade Award: Excellent 2006 – 2007 Awards  § N7 Naas Road Widening Interchange Scheme Award: Very Good  § Carran Hill water treatment works Award: Excellent 2003-2005 Awards: * abbey Kircubbin Wastewater Treatment Works Award: Excellent * Newtownstewart Bypass Award: Very Good (Source http://www.ceequal.com/all_awards.htm) LEED LEED stands for ‘Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design’. The United States Green Building Council (USGBC) developed LEED in 1998. The scheme was created to offer an American equivalent to BREEAM, a green building scheme that was created in 1990 in the UK. Aswell as being a US equivelant to BREEAM, LEED was invented to help define what green building was, by recognising environment leadership in the construction industry. By doing this LEED also hoped to raise awareness of the benefits of green building and try to create some competition in the green building market. The LEED evaluation method is voluntary and covers all types of buildings such as, homes, offices and retail space. The main division of the LEED initiative is ‘LEED for New Construction’. This LEED assessment is also used on some international building projects. LEED has eight key categories where LEED points can be achieved. 1. Location and Planning 2. Sustainable Sites 3. Water Efficiency 4. Energy Atmosphere 5. Materials Resources 6. Indoor Environmental Quality 7. Innovation in Design 8. Regional Priority In each of these six categories, multiple points can be achieved when specific needs have been met. The more points achieved, the higher the LEED rating will be. LEED has also introduced certain criteria, which is mandatory in each level of LEED. The LEED assessment is a two-part process, involving a design phase review and also a construction phase review. After these reviews, a LEED certificate can be presented if the project is up to standard. This table compares the old LEED v2.2 points system with the new LEED v3 system. (Table has been sourced from the Reed Construction Data website – http://www.reedconstructiondata.com/articles/read/leed-rating-system/) Below is a table showing the nine different rating systems and also the five overarching categories to correspond with the specialities available through LEED. A comparison between BREEAM and LEED More and more organisations are realising that having green credentials is a must in todays society. This is because the public are more sustainably aware thanks to the increased coverage for the subject of sustainability in the news and papers. Having a Green Building as part of your companies assets will show that you want to reduce the impact you have on the environment, as well as cutting utility bills and increasing the occupants health. With this increase in green buildings, there is now competition between the method of assement. For years, BREEAM has been the main environmental assessment method for UK buildings. Now with the expansion of LEED out of America there is increased competition. The principles of BREEAM have also spread worldwide, and while similar assesment methods have been created for other countries, BREEAM and LEED are the main methods used today. The way in which projects are assesed is the main difference between BREEAM and LEED. BREEAM uses assessors that have been trained by the BRE, who check for evidence in the building and score it against the specified criteria. The BRE then check the assesors report and award a BREEAM certificate. LEED on the other hand does not require a trained assesor, however points are awarded if a LEED Accredited Professional is used. Evidence from the project is gathered and submitted to the USGBC who will review it and award the appropriate certificate. Both BREEAM and LEED help to keep the market to improve building design. Both also regularly update their scoring criteria to keep up with changing regulations. BREEAM is more relevant in the UK as it uses UK policies, however LEED can be used as a global accreditation. BREEAM will more than likely be the favoured system in the UK, as it has backing from the government as they require BREEAM ratings for all of their buildings. Below is a table that compares the similarities of BREEAM and LEED: (Table sourced from http://www.bsria.co.uk/news/breeam-or-leed/) Code for Sustainable Homes The ‘Code for Sustainable Homes’ is an environmental impact rating system for houses in the UK. The Code was launched in December 2006, and addresses new standards, above current building regulations, for energy usage and sustainability issues. The aim of this new code is to try and decrease the impact that housing has on the environment. The code was created to try and help relieve the problems we have brought upon ourselves through climate change. Buildings contribute nearly half of the UK’s carbon emissions. In order to reduce these emissions by 80% by 2050, housing needs to become more sustainable. Following this code can help minimise the environmental damage that has occurred during the construction process in the past. It also gives homebuilders the chance to create a revolutionary design for new homes to be put on the housing market, promoting a more sustainable lifestyle. Adopting the code for sustainable homes is a major step in reaching the Government target of all new homes being zero carbon from 2016. A house that is built in accordance to the code for sustainable homes will be more energy efficient, use less water and create less carbon emissions. This in turn is better for the environment. Houses that follow the code are built in a more efficient way as they use materials that are from sustainable sources. Because they are built in a more efficient manner, less waste is created, and the use of recycled materials is promoted. Due to the increase in quality and efficiency, running costs will be lower than that of a traditional build. This way of sustainable building also encourages the occupier of the house to try to live a more sustainable lifestyle. The Code for Sustainable homes has 9 separate categories with set scoring points covering: 1. Energy/CO2. 2. Water. 3. Materials used in the home. 4. Surface water run-off. 5. Waste. 6. Pollution. 7. Health and Well-being. 8. Management 9. Ecology When the client incorporates a specific feature they are awarded points. At the end of the build these points are added together, and the total score forms the basis of a 1-6 star rating system. The code for sustainable homes uses a ‘star’ rating system, which ranges from 1 to 6. Level 1 equates to a 10% improvement over current Building Regulations energy standards, Level 3 is a 25% improvement on building regulations, and level 6 is a Zero Carbon house. A home rated as 6 stars will have achieved the highest sustainability rating. Diagram showing the points scoring to achieve each code level: (Source – The Code for Sustainable Homes) In February 2008, the Government decided that all new homes must have a rating against the Code for Sustainable Homes by May 2008. Also whenever houses are sold it has been made madatory that they have an Energy Performance Certificate (EPC). If a house has not been assessed for an EPC then it will receive a rating of zero. This was brought in as an incentive for builders and developers to aim to score higher ratings in the Code for Sustainable Homes as home buyers could now easily see a house’s performance from the EPC. Below is an copy of the EPC carried out for my house: Diagram explaining 1*, 3* and 6* energy requirements: Diagram sourced from â€Å"Greener Homes for the Future†. In 2006 the Government made publ

Internet Essay - Freenet, Survey and Implications :: Free Essays Online

Freenet: Survey and Implications      Ã‚  Ã‚   Abstract:   Freenet is a peer to peer file sharing network protocol, first conceived by Ian Clarke, and designed to meet several goals: scalability, anonymity of both publishing and reading, and immunity to all but the most determined denial-of-service (DOS) attacks, whether legal or technological in nature.   This paper briefly examines some of Freenet's predecessors, examines how Freenet attempts to achieve its design goals, and examines the implications of a fully functional, world scale Freenet.    Keywords:   Freenet, peer-to-peer, p2p, open source, file sharing, Ian Clarke, copyright, censorship, intellectual property.    Historical Background:   Peer-to-peer is an idea as old as the internet.   From the first days of Arpanet, it was recognized that arranging computers in an anarchic, rather than hierarchal configuration offered far greater scalability and reliability.   (Brand, 2001)   Once the internet began to be widely implemented, it also became clear that to a great degree, it also offered anonymity.    Approximately two years ago, Shawn Fanning released the Napster client beta.   Napster usage immediately began to increase at an exponential rate, and new users signed up almost as soon as they heard about it.   (Napster, 2001).   Until that time, the internet had been moving increasingly towards a central server model, away from the original idea of a collection of peers.   (Shirky, 2000).   Indeed, Napster also uses a central server, although it is only to create an easily accessible catalog of all files available at any particular moment.   All actual file copying takes place directly between two client machines, and it is also the clients who decide what, if any, content is available to the network. (Napster, 2001)    Although Napster was, and remains immensely popular, it was also recognized that it was not the type of program that powerful intellectual property providers were going to accept easily.   In fact, a matter of months after release, and soon after incorporating, the brand new Napster, Inc., was sued by the Recording Industry Association of America. (Napster, 2000).    However, it was quickly recognized that Napster was only vulnerable to legal attack because a central entity was required to run the indexing servers.   Nullsoft, who created Winamp, a popular Mp3 player for Windows, soon released Gnutella, a proof-of-concept design that built upon the Napster idea by sharing all types of files, not just Mp3s, and needed no central servers at all.   Although Gnutella remained on the Nullsoft website for only 24 hours before parent company AOL removed it, it was quickly disseminated to much of the internet, reverse engineered, and new clients based on the original protocol were released.

The Social and Ethical Implications of Assisted Reproductive Technologi

The Social and Ethical Implications of Assisted Reproductive Technologies Test tube babies have long been stigmatized by society as the unnatural results of scientific dabbling. The words `test tube baby' have been used by school children as an insult, and many adults have seen an artificial means of giving birth as something perhaps only necessary for a lesbian woman, or a luxury item only available to the elite few. The reality is that assisted reproductive technologies (ART) have been helping infertile couples have children since 1978.1 The methods of in vitro fertilization, it's variants, and the other ART procedures are ways for persons that would otherwise have no hope of conception to conceive and, in a rapidly growing percentage of cases, give birth to healthy babies. As the technology has developed, the quality and range of assistance has developed as well. At present, the means of assisted reproduction and the capabilities of these procedures has grown at a somewhat dizzying pace. However, thought to the repercussions of the applications of ART a re being disregarded to some extent while the public's knowledge and the understanding of embryologists and geneticists surges forward. It is possible given consideration to things such as the morality of these techniques, the unexplored alternative uses of these procedures, and the potential impact they posses that further development is unnecessary and possibly dangerous. As of 1995, 20,000 babies had been born as a result of ART treatments.2 Since then, many women and couples have sought the services of IVF clinics all over the world with hopes of the miracle of conception. These people are usually ones who suffer from some sort of condition that renders them inferti... ... available today, his goal would have been easily attainable through the technology that is presently seen as giving hope to millions of couples who seek simply to exercise their right to raise a child. Is the development if such technology ethical? Is the possibility that it could do greater harm than good enough to terminate the development of such technology? These questions are most likely too much to answer, given what is known and understood about genetic engineering, assisted reproduction, and DNA cloning. But perhaps the best answer is to say that before things are taken any further, we stop to look at what we have, attempt to understand and evaluate those things, and determine whether it is truly necessary to make advances in the technology. Perhaps we are at a point where the most important thing is slow down the pace of change before it gets away form us.

Fostering Creativity Essay -- Marketing, Innovation

The subject of score one for creativity or idea in the organization or workplace, in varied tactics or approaches, is gaining recognition as a critical part in assisting businesses to achieve better returns or profits and keeping employees satisfied; leaders and management increasingly realize creativity as the groundwork of competition in business (Gardner, 2007). In order to survive and succeed in this highly competitive market, creativity is not only the necessity requirement in the 21st century for business enterprises or institutions, and it is also the prerequisite for individuals and employees (Florida, 2010). In the following sections, this study will analyze and focus on the issues: The attributes that foster creativity and the elements or aspects that consider stifling creativity in 3C Inc. (3C), and how these attributes help evaluating strategic creativity and what approaches that they facilitate to create or manage creativity in the organization. Fostering creativity and 3C Inc. The subject of score one for creativity or innovation in the business or workplace, in varied tactics or approaches, is gaining recognition as a critical part in assisting organizations to achieve better returns or profits and keeping employees satisfied; leaders and management increasingly realize creativity and idea as the foundation or groundwork of competition in business (Gardner, 2007). As we are moving from an industrial economy to a creative economy, and in order to survive and succeed in this highly competitive market, creativity is not only the n foremost requirement in the 21st century for nations and business enterprises or institutions, and it is also the prerequisite for individuals and employee... ...). Lastly, as people argue that business in 3C needs to maintain focus, and the proposal of market potential appears rather small relative to the size of the current business; management and leaders must explain and remind them that many ideas first appeal unimportant or undersized functions, but they may develop and become bigger as the technology progresses, and users may find new uses for them (Harvard). As an open-innovation company, 3C leaders and managers must not suppress creativity or undermine and weaken it, they must keep away from the attributes that stifle creativity in the organization. The figure one below illustrates that (1) creative-thinking skills are one element of creativity and innovation, but that (2) expertise or knowledge and skills, and (3) motivation or inspiration are also vital and indispensable (Serrat, 2009; Harvard, 2003).

Mrs. Frisby and the rats of Nimh by Robert C. O’Brien

This book narrates the problems faced by the mice belonging to the family of Mrs. Frisby who is the main character of this fiction. The story of Frisby shows that she had the courage and determination to look after her family after the death of her husband. After the death of her husband Mrs. Frisby was expected to take care of her children. The story begins with the description of the life style of Mrs. Frisby’s family and the problems faced by this family as they depended on the humans for their survival. Due to the problems that mice’s family faced during winter, they were forced to change their places of habitation. However, Frisby’s son Timothy had a weak health. Due to his illness, Frisby could not carry her family to the safer place during winter, but it was important to find some solution the health problem of her son. This book consists of various adventures of Frisby who was able to even challenge a dragon. Frisy was able to save a crow who advised the mouse to go to old owl who was reluctant to give any advice until he heard the name of Mr. Frisby. Indirectly, Mr. Frisby is also mentioned in the book although he was dead. The old owl advised Mrs. Frisby to seek help from the nest of rats, which lived under a rose bush. After hearing the name of Mr. Frisby, the rats decide to help the mouse. It is curious to note that the rats led an independent life as they were able to establish their own colony with electricity, roads, streets, lifts, and various other facilities. Thus, Mrs. Frisby is introduced to the secret world of the rats. It is interesting to note that rats had mastered the art of reading and the young rats were expected to learn reading. The rats had succeeded in imitating the humans by establishing their own civilization in this secret world. The rats execute the plan of lifting the block of Mrs. Frisby’s house and shifting it to a safer location. This shows that these animals had mastered the art of modern technology by the use of latest machineries. Through this mastery of human skills, the rats had become independent of the control of human beings. Although the main characters are mice and rats, the story reveals the human character and values found in these animals as they think and behave like humans. For example, it is surprising to note that mouse goes to the owl and seeks the advice as there is a general perception that owl is always looking for the flesh of mouse. Mrs. Frisby shows her motherly affection when her son falls ill. The problems faced by the mouse’s family are also depicted in the fiction. Naturally, this book has attracted the attention of many students who study in elementary schools. Initially the book does not reveal the secret world of the rats. By doing so, the author is able to sustain the curiosity of the readers. Apart from mouse and rats, other characters in this book are Mrs. Frisby’s friend Mr. Ages, the crow, Jeremy, and the owl. Mrs. Frisby also learns that her husband was a close companion of the rats and out of respect for her husband the rats had agreed to help her. The reader is also informed that the rats had earlier depended on the human beings; later they decided to migrate to their present place where they established their own civilization. This book has been liked by the younger generation as there is description of the human character of the animals. Bibliography O’Brien, R.C. (1971). Mrs. Frisby and the Rats of Nimh. New York: Puffin

Economics story

The Indian Economy Since independency India Wins Freedom On 14 haughty 1947, Nehru had decl bed Long years past we made a tryst with destiny, and straight the magazine comes when we sh in all redeem our pledge. The fulfilment we keep today is merely a step, an interruption of oopportunity, to the capital triumph and achievments that await us. He reminded the country that the tasks ahead iincluded the ending of pauperism and ignorance and disease and inequality of oopportunity. These were the grassroots foundations on which India embarked upon its path of phylogenesis since urinateing independence in 1947.The purpose of this mouth is to analyze how more than has India really achieved in the last 55 years in fulfilling the aspirations on which it was founded. Indian Planning do The objective of Indias climbment dodge has been to establish a mixeristic pattern of participation d maven scotch harvest-tide with self-reliance, tender legal expert and alleviation of p e genuinely pointty. These objectives were to be achieved at bottom a democratic regimenal framework festering the mechanism of a mixed saving w present dickens(prenominal) human existences and cliquish spheres co-exist. India initiated proviso for informal stinting instruction with the com pip of the Planning Commission.The cypher of the First flipper socio- sparing class Plan (1951-56) was to raise house servant savings for upshot and to help the prudence resurrect itself from colonial rule. The real snap with the past in planning came with the trice Five Year Plan (Nehru-Mahalanobis Plan). The industrialization st come ingy articu belatedlyd by professor Mahalanobis placed emphasis on the organic evolution of heavy industries and envisaged a dominant occasion for the human race sphere in the sparing. The entrepreneurial character nameence of the articulate was evoked to develop the industrial sphere of influence. Commanding heights of the economic system were entrusted to the public celestial sphere.The objectives of industrial ppolicy were a richly-pitched gear branch govern, national self-reliance, decrement of alien dominance, building up of indigenous capacity, promote small scale industry, bringing al more or less correspondenced regional development, pr correcttion of submerging of stinting power, reduction of income inequalities and control of delivery by the State. The planners 1 and ppolicy strainrs suggested the need for exploitation a wide vvariety of instruments like state allocation of investment, licensing and other regulatory controls to touch Indian industrial development on a tautd economy basis.The scheme on a lower floorlying the first three plans untrue that once the out festering bear on gets established, the institutional changes would ensure that benefits of out reaping drip mold stamp out to the poor. But doubts were raised in the primeval s blushties well-nigh t he tellingness of the trickle vanquish improvement and its ability to discharge exiguity. Further, the suppuration itself genepaced by the planned approach remained too weak to create fitting surpluses- a prerequisite for the trickle d witness mechanism to work. Public sector did non live upto the expectations of generating surpluses to accele target the pace of smashing accumulation and help reduce inequality.Agricultural harvesting remained encumber by perverse institutional conditions. thither was unchecked cosmos reaping in this period. Though the gain achieved in the first three Five Year Plans was not in momentous, yet it was not fitted to meet the aims and objectives of development. These brought into view the weakness of sparing strategy. We discuss the ill fortune of the planning do in more detail in the next atom. A shift in ppolicy was called for. The Fifth Plan (1974-79) corrected its persist by initiating a design acpenny increment with re dispersi on.To accelerate the carry out of intersection and to align it with contemporary realities, a humble version of economic liberalization was belonged in the mid 1980s. Three principal(prenominal) committees were treated up in the primaeval 1980s. Narsimhan perpetration on the shift from strong-arm controls to pecuniary controls, Sengupta Committee on the public sector and the Hussain Committee on workmanship ppolicy. The result of such(prenominal)(prenominal) mooting was to reorient our economic policies. As a result in that location was almost progress in the surgery of deregulation during the 1980s. Two kinds of delicencing aactivity took place.First, thirty devil groups of industries were delicensed without any investment limit. Second, in 1988, all industries were exempted from licensing except for a specified interdict list of twenty six industries. penetration into the industrial sector was made easier but exit still remained closed and sealed. Hence, the ro ot of the liberalization program were started in the late 80s when Rajiv Gandhi was the native attend of India, but the reach and force of the make better 2 program was preliminary limited. there were policy-making reasons as to why this program could not be intensify which we talk approximately later.The Failure of the Planning summons plot the reasons for adopting a pennyrally enjoin strategy of development were understand able against the primer coat of colonial rule, it, how ever so soon became set free that the actual results of this strategy were furthermost to a disordereder place expectations. Instead of showing high growth, high public savings and a high degree of self-reliance, India was in truth showing ane of the lowest rates of growth in the ontogeny man with a ascending public deficit and a day-after-day balance of payment c fig outs.Between 1950 and 1990, Indias growth rate averaged less than 4 per penny per annum and this was at a time when the developing world, including Sub-Saharan Africa and other least developed countries, showed a growth rate of 5. 2 % per annum. An crucial assumption in the pick of bet-independence development strategy was the times of public savings, which could be used for high and higher(prenominal)(prenominal) levels of investment. However, this did not happen, and the public sector-instead of being a generator of savings for the communitys honourable- became, over time, a consumer of communitys savings.This reversal of mathematical functions had become evident by the early s levelties, and the process reached its culmination by the early eighties. By therefore, the governance began to debate up not only to meet its own revenue using up but in addition to finance public sector deficits and investments. During 1960-1975, resume public sector borrowings averaged 4. 4 % of GDP. These increase to 6 % of GDP by 1980-81, and come along to 9 % by 1989-90. thusly, the public sector, wh ich was alleged(a) to generate resources for the growth of the rest of the economy, piecemeal became a net drain on the society as a whole.I exit now try to give near reasons for the deterioration of the public sector in India. 1) The legal brass in India is such that it provides full protection to the private interests of the so called public servant, often at the expense of the public that he or she is supposed to serve. In addition to pure(a) job security, any group of public servants in any public sector organization give the axe go on strike in search of higher wages, packagings and bonuses for themselves, irrespective of the costs and 3 nconvenience to the public. Problems direct become worse over time and there is before longsighted or no broadsheetability of the public servant to perpetrate the public duty. 2) The authority of governments, at two(prenominal) center and states, to enforce their decisions has eroded over time. Government dirty dog pass orders, for example, for relocation of unauthorized industrial units or other structures, but implementation can be delayed if they run counter to private interests of some (at the expense of the general public interest). ) The process and procedures for conducting business in government and public operate organizations, over time, incur become non-functional. There ar numerosity of departments involved in the simplest of decisions, and administrative rules slackly concentrate on the process or else than results. There is precise little decentralization of decision- devising powers, specificly financial powers. Thus, opus topical anesthetic authorities exhaust been given remarkable authority in some states for implementing national programmes, their financial authority is limited.Hence during early 90s it was imperative for India to correct its distinctly faulty developmental process. There concur been several reasons put forward for the failure of the developmental path whic h necessitated the reforms of Manmohan Singh in 1991. The port I would approach the abridgment is finished the approach of comparing and contrasting the viewpoints of 2 of the most prominent Indian economists of our times. The Bhagwati-Sen grapple Jagdish Bhagwati and Amartya Sen, in all likelihood the two most powerful voices amongst Indian economists, represent the two diverging ways of thought about the development path.Though formally no such debates exists, apart(predicate) from occasional jibes against Sen in the writings of Bhagwati, I cerebrate by scrutinizing their positions a smoke of introspection can be adopte. As Bhagwati says my view as to what went wrong with Indian planning is completely at odds with that of Prof Sen. My objective in this section is bring 4 out the quick-witted divergence amongst these two great minds and perchance to learn something from that. Let us start with the points on which they agree.I echo the feature that India needs an e galitarian development path is rather well acknowledged by both of them. The Nehruvian dream of an egalitarian growth process was what both of them would endorse. As Bhagwati says I fork over often reminded the critics of Indian strategy, who attack it from the attitude of scantiness which is juxtaposed against growth, that it is incorrect to think that the Indian planners got it wrong by pass for growth rather than attacking distress they confuse mearns with ends.In particular, the phrase minimum income and the aim of providing it to Indias poor were very ofttimes part of the lexicon and at the heart of our thinking and analysis when I worked at the Indian Planning Commission in the early 1960s. The key strategy that be the resulting developmental effort was the decision to aspire efforts at accelerating the growth rate. Given the grandeur of the scantness, the potential of simple redistribution was considered to be both negligible in its immediate repair and of little sustained honor. Accelerated growth was thus regarded as an instrumental varying a ppolicy outcome that would in round of drinks reduce poverty.He goes on to argue Those advantageously associated in Indias plans fully understood, perverted to numerous recent assertions, the need for write down reforms, for attention to the possibility of un repayable dumbness of economic power and growth in inequality. These loving tasks, which of course in addition can redound to economic advantage, were attended to and interminably debated in the ensuing years, with reports commissi iodind (such as the Mahalanobis Committee report on income distribution in 1962) and policies continually revised and devised to achieve these social outcomes.If we follow the writings of Sen on the other hand, in his recent countersign Development As Freedom, Sen argues that the public utility of wealth lies in the things that it allows us to do- the solid freedoms it helps us to achieve. an adequate c aprice of development must go practically beyond the accumulation of wealth and the growth of gross national harvest-tide and other income-related variables. Without ignoring the spellance of economic growth, we must escort well beyond it. I dont think that there is any divergence of view on this front with that of what Bhagwati says.It is worth mentioning at this juncture that this has been a park misconception amongst economists about the divergence of two diametric developmental paths. It is often misconceive that Bhagwatis 5 view stresses expert on economic growth while Sen argues against economic growth and the importance of markets. The above paragraphs reveal that this is veritablely not the case. some(prenominal) of them is sufficiently concerned with economic growth as well as the rudimentary burdens of poverty, health and social issues. The points of divergence I believe the real disparity concerns the mearns of achieving these common goals.Bhagwatis channel s can be summarized as follows. The development process consists of two steps. As a first step, a growth accelerated strategy would generate compound investments and whose objective was to jolt the economy up into a higher investment direction that would generate a a lot higher growth rate. The planning framework rest on two legs. First, it sought to make the escalated growth credible to private iinvestors so that they would proceed to invest on an deepen basis in a self-fulfilling prophecy.Second, it aimed at generating the added savings to finance the investments so induced. His contention crucially rested on the undermentioned logical possible action. For the higher growth rate to achieve it is very classic for the economy concerned to be open. If the rough-and-ready swop rate for exports over the effective switch rate for imports (signifying the relative positivity of the unknown over the home market), ensured that the world markets were productive to aim for, guar anteeing in term of enlistment that the motivator to invest was no longitudinal constrained by the growth of the domestic market.It is worthwhile to recount Indias performance as far as the public sector savings is concerned, which was considered a major disablement towards the success of the Indian plans. Continuing with the argument, the generation of substantial export earnings enabled the growth investment to be utilize by imports of equipment embodying technical change. If the Social Marginal produce of this equipment exceeded the cost of its importation, there would be a surplus that would accrue as an income gain to the economy and boost the growth rate.The occasion of literacy and precept comes at the next stage. The pproduactivity of the trade equipment would be greater with a men that was literate and would be further enhanced if many had even numberary education. in a flash his argument is based on the fact that the enhanced growth would demand and atomic nu mber 82 to a more educated workforce. Thus 6 he considers that primary education and literacy plays an enhancing, rather than initiating role in the developmental process. Sen on the other hand considers a larger view of development.He believes that read/write heads such as whether certain governmental or social freedoms, such as the liberty of political intimacy and dissent, or opportunities to receive raw material education, are or not conducive to development misses the important understanding that these all important(p) freedoms are among the constituent components of development. Their relevance for development does not occupy to be newly established through with(predicate) with(predicate) their indirect region to the growth of gross national product or to the promotion of industrialization.While the causal relation, that these freedoms and rights are also very effective in contributing to economic progress, the vindication of freedoms and rights provided by this cau sal gene linkage is over and above the directly constitutional role of these freedoms in development. I think that it is precisely at this point where some of Sens writings on political economy and philosophy should be considered. According to Sen, political economy as a discipline has tended to cause extraneous from focusing on the value of freedoms to that of utilities, incomes and wealth. This narrowing of focus leads to an underappreciation of the full role of the market mechanism.For example, take the example of the most important finding on the theory of the markets- the Arrow-Debreu equilibrium. That theorem shows that a competitive economic system can achieve a certain type of strength (Pareto efficiency to be precise) which a centralized system cannot achieve, and this is due to reasons of incentives and training problems. But if we suppose that no such imperfections do exist and the resembling competitive equilibrium can be brought about by a authoritarian who announ ces the production and allocation decision, then are these two outcomes the same?In a very frequently celebrated paper, Sen brings out the musical note between culmination outcomes (that is, the only net outcomes without taking any note of the process of getting there) and comprehensive outcomes (taking note of the process through which the culmination outcomes come about). on these lines we can argue that Sen would disagree with Bhagwatis point of view in that it does not consider the comprehensive outcomes.Though the outcomes whitethorn be the same if we bring about a simultaneous increase in investments in education, health and other social activities, with that of growth, as against a 7 framework where growth brings about a derived demand for those activities (a la Bhagwati), these are not the same thing. So as we can take, the primary residuum in the approach is that Bhagwati argues that poverty and social dimensions can be taken kick of in the second step of the develo pment process while Sen argues that social oopportunity is a constitutive element in the developmental process.In this respect it is helpful to scrutinize the eastbound Asian case, where countries like Japan, southern Korea, main record chinaware (so called Asian Tigers) achieved phenomenal rates of growth in the 80s and much of the early 90s. The interesting fact about these countries is that they achieved this with a significant high record on the social dimensions. some(prenominal) Bhagwati and Sen has commented directly on the achievement of these countries. As Bhagwati states The East Asian investment rate began its take-off to phenomenal levels because East Asia turned to the export promotion (EP) strategy.The emptying of the bias against exports, and indeed a net excess of the effective rally rate for exports over the effective exchange rate for imports (signifying the relative profitability of the international over the domestic market), ensured that the world marke ts were profitable to aim for, guaranteeing in turn that the inducement to invest was no longer constrained by the growth of the domestic market as in the IS strategy. I personally think that there is nothing disputable in this analysis but it does not strengthen his argument that the social achievements in these countries followed their phase of growth.In fact the pioneering example of enhancing economic growth through social oopportunity, curiously in canonic education, is Japan. Japan had a higher rate of literacy than Europe even at the time of the Meiji restoration in the mid nineteenth century, when industrialization had not yet occurred there but had gone on for many decades in Europe. The East Asian own was also based on ssimilar connections. The contrasts between India and mainland China are also important in this aspect. The governments of both China and India has been fashioning efforts for sometime now to move toward a more open, internationally active, market-orient ed economy.While Indian efforts have slowly met with some access, the kind of coarse results that China has seen has failed to occur in India. An important factor in this contrast lies in the fact that from a social homework standpoint, China is a great fill in ahead of India in being able to make use of the market economy. While prereform China was deeply s keptical of markets, it was not skeptical of introductory education and 8 widely shared health care. When China turned to marketization in 1979, it already had a highly literate people, especially the young, with good schooling facilities across the bulk of the country.In this respect, China was not very far from the basic educational situation in South Korea or Taiwan, where too an educated population had played a major role in seizing the economic opportunities offered by a supported market system. indeed it is often argued that it is a mistake to gravel about the discord between income achievements and excerption chan ces-in general- the statistical connection between them is sight to be quite close. It is interesting, in this context, to refer to some statistical analyses that have lately been presented by Sudhir Anand and Martin Ravallion.On the basis of intercountry comparisons, they find that livelihood expectancy does indeed have a significantly overbearing correlation with GNP per head, but that this dealingship works generally through the jar of GNP on (I) the incomes specifically of the poor and (2) public expenditure particularly in health care. In fact, once these two variables are iincluded on their own in the statistical exercise, little extra explanation can be obtained from including GNP per head as an excess causal influence. The basic point is that the impact of economic growth depends much on how the fruits of economic growth are used.Sen argues that a focus on issues on basic education, basic health care and land reforms made widespread economic participation easier in man y of the East Asian and Southeast Asian economies in a way it has not been possible in, say, brazil-nut tree or India, where the creation of social opportunities has been much slower and that slowness has acted as a barrier to economic development. I believe that one has to take note of the examples of say, Sri Lanka, the Indian State of Kerala or pre-reform China where on the contrary, impressive high life expectancy, low fertility, high literacy and so on, have failed to sympathize into high economic growth.I would like to see a theory which explains this. But to tidy up Sens view, he would rather prefer a situation of that of Kerala or Sri Lanka than that of brazil nut or India. I would suggest that what one needs is such critical studies which would finish off the failure of Brazil on one hand as against Sri Lanka on the other, to adorn the fact that why an egalitarian growth process was not fortunately implemented in these cases. We provide have effective lessons to lea rn in that case for the upcoming of development. The debate 9 between Bhagwati and Sen (or rather the created debate in this paper) gives rise to such an agenda.The Reforms of Manmohan Singh At the beginning of 90s the reform process was started by the then Finance Minsiter of India, Manmohan Singh. The way I will organize this section is the following First, I will give a short summary of the reform process , in the sense what were its general goals and ideas. Then I will mention some aspects of the reforms which I think are very encouraging. subsequently that I will scrutinize the reforms more stringently in order to appreciate whether there is real cause for such jubilation that we tend to observe regarding India. (i)The reach Indias economic reforms began in 1991 under the Narsimha Rao Government. By that time the surge in oil prices triggered by the Gulf contend in 1990 imposed a perfect(a) strain on a balance of payments already made fragile by several years of large fis cal deficits and increasing remote debt as was discussed before. approaching at a time of internal political instability, the balanceof-payments crises quickly ballooned into a crisis of authorisation which intensified in 1991 even though oil prices quickly normalized. Foreign exchange reserves dropped to $1. billion in 1991, notwithstanding sufficient for two weeks of imports and a slackness on external payments appeared inevitable. The shortage of unlike exchange forced tightening of import restrictions, which in turn led to a fall in industrial output. A digression The administration of reforms In a very engaging article on the politics of reforms Ashutosh Varshney has raised an extremely important question as to why was Indias minority government in 1991 successful in introducing economic reforms, whereas a much sthronger government, with a three-fourth majority in parliament, was ineffectual to do so in 1985 (under the Prime Ministership of Rajiv Gandhi)?His argument dr aws a distinction between mass politics and elite politics. He believes that this distinction has not been adequately comprehended 10 in the voluminous belles-lettres on the politics of economic reforms. Scholars of economic reforms have generally assumed that reforms are, or tend to become, central to politics. Depending on what else is making demands on the energies of the electorate and politicians- ethnic and religious strife, political order and stability, corruption and crimes of the incumbents- the assumption of reforms centrality may not be right.In the largest ever survey of mass political attitudes in India conducted between April-July 1996, only 19 ppercent of the electorate account any knowledge of economic reforms, even though reforms had been in existence since July 1991. Of the coarse electorate, only about 14 per cent had heard of reforms, whereas the comparable proportion in the cities was 32 per cent. Further nearly 66 ppercent of the graduates were aware of th e dramatic changes in economic ppolicy, compared to only 7 per cent of the poor, who are mostly illiterate.In contrast, close to three-fourths of the electorate both literates and illiterates, poor and rich, urban and rural- were aware of the 1992 mosque wipeout in Ayodhya 80 per cent express clear opinions about whether the country should have a uniform civil rule or religiously prescribed and crystallise laws for mmarriage, divorce, and property inheritance and 87 per cent took a stand on caste-based affirmatory action. Thus according to Varshney, elite politics is typically expressed in debates and struggles within the institutionalized settings of a bureaucracy, of a parliament or a cabinet.Mass politics takes place primarily on the streets. In democracies, especially poor democracies, mass politics can redefine elite politics, for an accumulated flavour of popular sentiments and opinions inevitably exercises a great deal of pressure on take politicians. The economic ref orms during 1991 kept progressing because the political context had made Hindu-Muslim relations and caste animosities the prime determinant of political coalitions. The reforms were crowded out of mass politics by issues that aroused greater passion, and fear about the nation.And hence the reforms could go as far as they did. (ii) The Reforms in a Nutshell The reforms had two broad objectives. One was the reorientation of the economy from a statist, centrally enjoin and highly controlled economy to what is referred to in the incumbent jargon as a marketfriendly economy. A reduction direct controls and physical planning was expected to improve the efficiency of the economy. It was to be made more 11 open to trade and external flows through a reduction in trade barriers and liberalization of foreign investment policies.A second objective of the reform measures was macro-economic stabilization. This was to be achieved by substantially reducing fiscal deficits and the governments dr aft on societys savings. (iii) Results Compared with the historical trend, the impact of these policies has been positive and significant. The growth rate of the economy during 1992-93 to 1999-2000 was close to 6. 5 per cent per annum. The balance of payments position has also substantially improved.Despite several external developments, including the imposition of sanctions in 1998 and sharp rise in oil prices in 2000-01, foreign exchange reserves are at a record level. Current account deficits have been moderate, and Indias external debt (as a ppercentage of GDP) and the debt servicing burden have actually come down since the early nineties. There is also evidence of considerable restructuring in the corporate sector with attention being given to cost-competitiveness and financial viability.The rate of ostentation has also come down sharply. (iv) A Closer Scrutiny When we talk about GDP growth we talk about the aggregate figures. Let us intimately look at the sectoral compositio n. If we look at the growth rates with respect to different sectors we find that the growth rates of artless and industrial production have not increased at all in the nineties, compared with the eighties. The increase in overall growth in the 1990s is overwhelmingly dictated by accelerated growth of the service sector.The service sector includes some very dynamic fields, such as uses of information technology and electronic servicing, in both of which India has made remarkable progress. This was largely a result of the liberalization policies initiated by Manmohan Singh. Ssimilar comments put on to the phenomenal expansion of software-related export services. nowadays the relevant question is, what is wrong in the fact that the services sector is madcap the growth process in India?What is a bit disturbing is the fact that it is not clear as to the issue to which the rapid growth of the service sector as a whole contributes to the generation of widely-shared employment, the e limination of poverty, and the 12 enhancement of the quality of life. And also employment in the service sector is often inaccessible to those who lack the mandatory skills or education. The current restructuring to the Indian economy towards this skill and education-intensive sector reinforces the resources to a certain ection of the society. How has the Reforms been successful in creating a widely shared developmental process? The issue as to whether the reforms have been successful in eliminating poverty to a greater extent than say in the 80s is a contentious issue. Experience front to the nineties suggests that economic growth in India has typically reduced poverty. Using information from 1958 to 1991, Ravallion and Datt (1996) find that the elasticity of the incidence of poverty with respect to net domestic product per capita was 0. 5 and that with respect to private function per capita it was 0. 9. However, the 1990s are more contentious. approximately observers have arg ued that poverty has fall far more rapidly in the 1990s than previously (for example, Bhalla, 2000). Others have argued that poverty reduction has stalled and that the poverty rate may even have risen (for example, Sen, 2001). The basic question of measuring Indias poverty rate has turned out to be harder to make than it needed to be because of difficulties with coverage and par of the survey data.Correcting for all those, Datt and Ravallion in a recent study find that India has probably maintained its 1980s rate of poverty reduction in the 1990s, though they do not find any convert evidence of an acceleration in the slouch of poverty. It is probably apt to remark here that oftentimes the public rhetoric fails to take the incomparability problems in the surveys from which the poverty estimates are calculate and try to interpret the estimates to reinforce their particular arguments.Even the Finance Ministers calculate speech of Feb 2001 coincluded firmly that poverty has fallen from 36 ppercent in 1993-4 to 26 ppercent or less now. It is worth noting that even if one were to endorse the official 1999-2000 headcount ratio of 26 per cent, which is known to be biased downwards, one would find that poverty reduction in the 90s has proceeded at a ssimilar rates as in the earlier decades, in spite of a significant acceleration in the economic growth rate. As things stand, this is the most optimistic variant of the available evidence.All of the estimates were made with respect to head-count indexes. I think it is necessary to move away from this narrow index and to consider a broader range of social 13 indicators. some(prenominal) of the debate in this area has focussed on what has happened to expenditure on social sector development in the post reform period. Dev and Mooji (2002) find that central